薩米‧蒂米米,醫學博士-2020 年 11 月 9 日 By Sami Timimi, MD -November 9, 2020
文章來源:https://www.madinamerica.com/2020/11/insane-medicine-chapter-3-part-1/
注意力缺陷/多動障礙 (ADHD) 是什麼?傳統的回答是,它是一種由神經功能失調引起的過度活躍、注意力不集中和衝動行為,主要源自於基因遺傳和大腦發育異常。因此,與自閉症一起,通常被稱為「神經發展障礙」。這種對這些行為的理解方式最初在北美出現,首先針對兒童,隨後(經過重要的修改)應用於成人,並逐漸被傳播到世界各地。
What is Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)? The conventional answer to this question is that it is hyperactivity, inattentiveness, and impulsivity that are caused by neurological dysfunction rooted primarily in genetics and abnormalities in the development of the brain. As a result, it is often referred to, alongside autism, as a “neurodevelopmental disorder.” This way of imagining the significance of such behaviours, firstly in children and then (with important modifications) in adults, started in North America and has been exported throughout the world.
與這種「神經」範式緊密相連的是使用興奮劑的藥物治療,如利他林、愛德拉和斯特拉特拉,它們同樣在診斷為ADHD的兒童治療中占據主導地位,並且在將ADHD建構為一種具有神經學起源的疾病方面發揮了重要作用。
Going hand in glove with this “neuro” paradigm are the pharmaceutical treatments using stimulants, such as Ritalin, Adderall, and Strattera, which have similarly dominated the treatment of children who get diagnosed with ADHD and played a major part in the construction of ADHD as having neurological origins.
認為被診斷為ADHD的人具有某些特徵性的大腦異常或差異,以及認為所用藥物具有針對某種疾病過程(如化學失衡)的特定作用,這些觀點都是錯誤的,並且是具有破壞性錯誤的觀點。
Both the idea that there are some characteristic brain-based abnormalities or differences for those diagnosed with ADHD, and that the medications used have specific properties that target a disease process—like a chemical imbalance—are false. Damagingly false.
ADHD的主流建構 Mainstream construction of ADHD
在精神病學文獻中,ADHD的標準建構通常是這樣的::The standard construction of ADHD in the psychiatric literature goes something like this:
ADHD的特徵是某種行為模式,該行為至少在兩種環境中出現(例如學校和家中),並且可能導致在社交、學業或工作環境中的表現問題。症狀可以分為兩類:「注意力不集中」和「過度活躍與衝動」,包括如未能仔細注意細節、難以組織任務和活動、過度講話、坐立不安或在適當情況下無法保持坐姿等行為。
ADHD is characterised by a pattern of behaviour, present in at least two settings (e.g., school and home) and that can result in performance issues in social, educational, or work settings. Symptoms can be divided into two categories of “inattention” and “hyperactivity and impulsivity” that include behaviours like failure to pay close attention to details, difficulty organising tasks and activities, excessive talking, fidgeting, or an inability to remain seated in appropriate situations.
根據最新的定義,個體的ADHD症狀必須在12歲之前出現(在2013年新的定義發布之前,症狀必須在7歲之前出現)。
According to the latest definitions, the individual’s ADHD symptoms must be present prior to the age of 12 years, (until new definitions were printed in 2013, symptoms had to be present before 7 years old).
ADHD被描述為一種常見的精神疾病,影響大約3%至7%的兒童,主要是男孩,且許多患者不會隨著年齡增長而完全擺脫該疾病(即,這將是一種終身疾病)。ADHD主要具有遺傳基礎,導致一種「神經發展異常」,同時也會引起大腦中的化學失衡。治療通常包括興奮劑藥物治療和行為治療的結合。
ADHD is described as a common psychiatric disorder that affects between 3% and 7% of children, mainly boys, and which many do not grow out of (i.e., it will be a lifelong disorder). ADHD has a primarily genetic basis that results in a “neurodevelopmental” abnormality that also causes a chemical imbalance in the brain. Treatment is usually a mixture of stimulant medication and behaviour therapy.
現在讓我們更仔細地審視這些說法。
Let’s now examine these claims more carefully.
簡史 A brief history
這種想法是被想像出來的。字面上來說:在有人稱之為ADHD(或其前身名稱)之前,根本沒有ADHD。在ADHD被發明出來之前(或之後),從未有任何科學發現證實我們所稱的ADHD是由某種已知的異常或差異所引起,且這種異常或差異具有足夠的特徵,讓人認為它是一種自然類型的疾病——像肺炎或糖尿病那樣,在自然界中可以辨識出來的一種現象。
The behaviours that are said to make up the diagnosis of ADHD did not make up ADHD until it was imagined in that way. Literally: there was no ADHD until someone called it ADHD (or its precursor names). There has never been any basis in scientific discovery before ADHD was invented (or since) that has shown that what we call ADHD is the result of a known abnormality or difference sufficiently characteristic to think of it as a natural kind—a thing that occurs in an identifiable way in nature, just like pneumonia or diabetes.
過度活躍、注意力不集中和衝動行為在兒童中首次被概念化為可能的醫學現象是在一個多世紀前,當時英國兒科醫生弗雷德里克·斯蒂爾(Frederick Still)描述了一群他認為具有注意力持續能力差、煩躁不安和坐立不安的兒童。他進一步主張,這些兒童存在「道德控制的異常缺陷」,儘管他通常認為這是由於影響大腦的先前疾病所導致,如腦部腫瘤、腦膜炎、癲癇、頭部外傷、傷寒或智力障礙等。
Over-activity, poor concentration, and impulsivity in children were first conceptualised as possible medical phenomena over a century ago when British paediatrician, Frederick Still, described a group of children who showed what he considered to be a poor capacity for sustained attention, restlessness, and fidgetiness, and went on to argue that these children had “abnormal defects of moral control,” although he generally assumed this was caused by pre-existing diseases effecting the brain such as cerebral tumours, meningitis, epilepsy, head injury, typhoid fever, or impairment of the intellect.
儘管斯蒂爾列舉了一些行為,這些行為可能更適合被歸類為品行障礙(如殘忍、嫉妒、無法無天、不誠實)而非ADHD,但ADHD的支持者常將他在1902年發表於《柳葉刀》的文章描繪為早期識別ADHD醫學綜合症的例子。
Although Still lists behaviours that could be considered more appropriate to the category of conduct disorder (such as cruelty, jealousy, lawlessness, dishonesty) than ADHD, ADHD enthusiasts often paint his 1902 article in The Lancet as an early example of the identification of the medical syndrome of ADHD.
在ADHD發展敘事中,支持者引用的下一個重要環節是一篇發表於1937年的布拉德利(Bradley)論文。該論文描述了在一所神經受損兒童機構中偶然發現的現象,即使用興奮劑苯丙胺(Benzedrine)進行治療,據稱能夠改善這些兒童的行為、專注力和學校表現,至少在短期內有效。這些兒童經常表現出煩躁不安、個性變化和學習困難,許多人之前曾患有腦炎。
The next important link in the developing ADHD narrative cited by the enthusiasts was a 1937 paper by Bradley describing the chance discovery, at an institution for neurologically impaired children, that stimulant treatment (with the stimulant Benzedrine) allegedly improved the behaviour, concentration, and school performance of a group of these children, at least in the short term. The children often presented with restlessness, personality changes and learning difficulties with many having previously suffered from encephalitis.
斯蒂爾和布拉德利的論文在發表時並未受到太多關注,如果不是幾十年後ADHD的前身開始在文化和政治圈子中獲得支持,這些論文很可能會像成千上萬其他醫學和科學文獻中的想法一樣,逐漸消失不見。
Neither Still nor Bradley’s papers received much attention at the time of their publication and would have disappeared like thousands of other ideas that come and go in the medical and scientific literature, had ADHD precursors not started to gain traction in cultural and political circles decades later.
在第二次世界大戰後的歲月裡,精神病學開始參與許多受創傷的男人、女人和家庭的治療,因此開始擴大其興趣範圍。兒童的心理生活——在此之前,精神醫學界並沒有對這個群體產生太大的興趣——成為人們更大好奇和興趣的焦點。許多醫生開始推測,表現出過動症的兒童可能大腦中存在導致過動症的器質性病變。
在二戰後的年代,精神病學開始參與治療許多受到創傷的男性、女性和家庭,並因此逐漸擴展了其研究範圍。兒童的心理狀態——一個直到當時並未引起精神病學界太多關注的群體——成為了更多好奇與關注的焦點。一些醫生開始推測,那些表現出過度活躍的兒童可能在大腦中有器質性病變,這正是導致他們過度活躍的原因。
In the post-second world war years, psychiatry became involved in the treatment of many traumatised men, women, and families and so began to expand its range of interests. The mental life of children—a group that had not drawn much interest from the psychiatric profession until then—became the focus of greater curiosity and interest. A number of doctors began to speculate that children who presented as hyperactive might have organic lesions in the brain that was causing their hyperactivity.
1947年,斯特勞斯(Strauss)和萊蒂寧(Lehtinen)提出了「輕微腦損傷」(Minimal Brain Damage, MBD)的診斷,用以解釋在缺乏明顯腦損傷證據的情況下出現的過度活躍現象。他們主張,那些經歷了可識別的腦損傷(如腦炎、出生創傷和癲癇)的兒童有時會表現出過度活躍,因此他們推測,那些表現出過度活躍但沒有明顯腦損傷的兒童,可能存在某種尚未識別的腦部損傷。
In 1947, Strauss and Lehtinen proposed a diagnosis of Minimal Brain Damage (MBD) to explain the occurrence of hyperactivity in the absence of overt evidence of brain injury. Arguing that children who experienced identifiable brain injuries (from, for example encephalitis, birth trauma, and epilepsy) sometimes presented with hyperactivity, they suggested that those who presented with hyperactivity in the absence of readily identifiable brain injuries, may have some as yet unidentified brain damage.
在1950年代,一群醫生以及一些教育工作者、政治家和家長開始對那些表現出我們如今與ADHD相關的行為的兒童感到更加擔憂,並開始思考這些行為是否是潛在病理的表現,從而需要進行醫療干預。
It was in the 1950s when a group of physicians, along with some educators, politicians, and parents, started to become more alarmed about children who had the behaviours that we now associate with ADHD, and wondered whether such behaviours were the manifestations of an underlying pathology that warranted medical intervention.
歷史學家馬修·史密斯(Matthew Smith)通過搜索醫學數據庫發現,這種擔憂在1950年代末達到高潮,尤其是在1957年,當時美國羅德島的艾瑪·潘德頓·布拉德利之家(Emma Pendleton Bradley Home)的兒童精神科醫生創造了「過動性衝動障礙」這一術語,用來描述一群兒童的行為。這標誌著我們現在所稱的ADHD正式誕生,並且一群主要由男孩表現出來的兒童行為(如任何家長或老師都會告訴你的)進入了醫學的視野。然而,無論是當時還是之後,都沒有任何生物學發現能證明這種行為可以作為一種基於「神經」的知識體系進入醫學領域。
As historian Matthew Smith found through searching medical databases, such concerns reached momentum during the late 1950s and, particularly, in 1957 when, amongst other events, a group of child psychiatrists at Emma Pendleton Bradley Home in Rhode Island, USA, coined the term ‘hyperkinetic impulse disorder’ to describe a group of children. This was when what we now think of as ADHD was properly invented and a group of childhood behaviours, mainly displayed by (as any parent or teacher would tell you) boys, were brought under a medical gaze. There was to be no biological discovery either then or since to justify its entry into any system of knowledge as a “neuro”-based thing.
1957年之後,關於患有ADHD「症狀」的兒童的醫學文章數量在美國急劇增加,隨後在其他國家也出現了類似的趨勢。在之前的半個世紀裡,醫學文獻,特別是受精神分析思想影響的文獻,更加關注那些內向、害羞或「神經質」的兒童。然而,五十年代末標誌著一個轉折點,研究重心逐漸轉向那些表現出違法、暴力以及其他反社會行為的兒童。
After 1957, the number of medical articles about children with the “symptoms” of ADHD, escalated exponentially in the United States, and later in other countries. In the previous half century, medical literature, particularly that influenced by psychoanalytic ideas, was more concerned with withdrawn, shy, “neurotic” children. The late fifties, then, marked a turning point as interest transferred more to children who exhibited delinquent, violent, and other antisocial behaviours.
這轉變背後的原因是什麼?馬修史密斯認為,這可能與1957年秋天蘇聯發射人造衛星後的恐懼有關,美國在科學、技術和軍事優勢的競賽中落後於蘇聯。有人擔心,如果不改變美國的學校系統來糾正這種情況,他們可能會徹底輸掉冷戰。這導致了課堂結構、教學方法和對學生表現的期望的變化。
What was behind this shift?
這一轉變的背後原因是什麼?
According to Matthew Smith, it may have been related to fear, following the Soviet launching of the Sputnik satellites in the autumn of 1957, that the US was falling behind the USSR in the race for scientific, technological, and military superiority. There was concern that if changes were not made to the American school system to redress the situation, they might lose the Cold War altogether. This caused a change in classroom structure, teaching methods, and expectations with regard to pupil performance.
根據馬修·史密斯的說法,這可能與1957年秋天蘇聯發射斯普特尼克衛星後的恐懼有關,當時美國擔心自己在科學、技術和軍事實力的競爭中落後於蘇聯。如果美國不對教育系統進行改變來彌補這一狀況,他們可能會徹底輸掉冷戰。這種擔憂導致了課堂結構、教學方法以及對學生表現的期望發生變化。
I am not entirely convinced by this, and think that such events intersected with other changes taking place in the culture of the time, including (but not limited to) the growth of and fear of adolescent culture, changes in family structure and community rootedness, growing size of an aspirational middle class, and greater concern about children both as perpetrators and victims.
我並不完全相信這種解釋,並認為這些事件與當時文化中的其他變化相交織,包括(但不限於)青少年文化的興起與恐懼、家庭結構和社區根基的變化、中產階級規模的擴大以及對兒童作為加害者和受害者的關注增多。
The more important point here is recognising that ADHD emerges and gets popularised because there are cultural, not scientific, reasons for it becoming a sellable brand. Shifts in public and political concerns will shift interest, conversations, funding, service provision, and so on.
更重要的一點是,ADHD的出現和普及是因為有文化而非科學原因,使其成為一個可銷售的品牌。公共和政治關注的變化會影響對這一話題的興趣、討論、資金和服務的提供等。
Diagnostic developments
診斷的發展
By the 1960s, the term MBD was being criticised and losing favour, as evidence for underlying organic lesions in children who displayed hyperactivity was not being found. In addition, higher rates of brain insults were found to be present across most psychiatric categories (rather than any specific one) and many who had evidence of brain damage did not show hyperactivity.
到了1960年代,「輕微腦損傷」(MBD)這個術語開始受到批評並逐漸失寵,因為沒有找到顯示過度活躍兒童存在潛在器質性病變的證據。此外,在大多數精神病類別中都發現腦損傷的比例較高(而非僅限於某一類別),而且許多有腦損傷證據的人並沒有表現出過度活躍。
Instead, the Oxford International Study Group of Child Neurology suggested that MBD be redefined as Minimal Brain Dysfunction. The concept of Minimal Brain Dysfunction was wider and referred to children with learning or behavioural problems ranging from mild to severe, and presenting with “deviations” of perception, conceptualisation, language, memory, attention, impulse, or motor function.
相反,牛津國際兒童神經病學研究小組建議將MBD重新定義為「輕微腦功能障礙」。輕微腦功能障礙的概念範圍更廣,指的是從輕度到重度的學習或行為問題兒童,這些兒童在感知、概念化、語言、記憶、注意力、衝動或運動功能方面存在「偏差」。
As it was becoming recognised in the medical literature that the presence of hyperactivity couldn’t be thought of as evidence of some sort of brain damage, it began to be understood as being part of a behavioural syndrome that could arise from organic pathology, but could also occur in its absence. As a result, a movement away from causally based definitions towards behaviourally based ones occurred. Thus, in 1966, the North American-based Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, second edition (DSM-II) coined the label “Hyperkinetic reaction of childhood,” to replace the diagnosis of MBD.
隨著醫學文獻逐漸認識到,過度活躍不能被視為腦損傷的證據,它開始被理解為一種行為綜合症的一部分,這種綜合症可以由器質性病變引起,但也可以在無病變的情況下出現。因此,診斷定義從因果關係轉向基於行為的定義。於是,1966年,北美出版的《精神障礙診斷與統計手冊》(第二版,DSM-II)創造了「兒童過動反應」這一標籤,取代了MBD的診斷。
At the same time growing interest from psychologists meant that psychological mechanisms were being hypothesised as the mediator between potential causal influences and subsequent behavioural manifestations. The role of attention came to the fore as a new theory proposed that problems in sustaining attention were the drivers of hyperactivity.
同時,心理學家對該領域的興趣增加,意味著心理機制被假設為潛在因果影響和隨後行為表現之間的中介。注意力的角色凸顯出來,一種新的理論提出,注意力持續問題是過度活躍的驅動因素。
Thus, when the DSM-II was replaced in the early eighties by the third edition (DSM-III), the disorder was now termed Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) reflecting this change in emphasis. This could be diagnosed with or without hyperactivity and was defined using three dimensions (three separate lists of symptoms): one for attention deficits, one for impulsivity, and one for hyperactivity. ADD now sets the scene for a revolution to take place in Western child psychiatric practice, as the drug Ritalin joins the growing popularity of using psycho-pharmaceuticals to deal with life’s challenges.
因此,當1980年代初DSM-II被第三版DSM-III取代時,這一障礙被命名為注意力缺陷障礙(ADD),反映了這種重點轉變。該診斷可以伴隨或不伴隨過度活躍,並且是通過三個維度(即三張不同的症狀列表)來定義的:一個是注意力缺陷,一個是衝動性,還有一個是過度活躍。ADD為西方兒童精神病學實踐帶來了一場革命,隨著利他林藥物的加入,使用精神藥物來應對生活挑戰的趨勢日益增長。
When the DSM-III was revised (and became DSM-III-R) in the late eighties, the symptoms were all combined into one list (one dimension) and ADD was now changed to Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), with attention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness now assumed to be part of one disorder with no distinctions, and thus the label ADHD was born.
當1980年代末DSM-III被修訂(並成為DSM-III-R)時,所有症狀都被合併到一個列表(即一個維度)中,ADD也被改名為注意力缺陷多動障礙(ADHD),此時注意力、過度活躍和衝動被認為是同一障礙的一部分,沒有區分,於是ADHD這一標籤誕生了。
When the fourth edition of the DSM (DSM-IV) was published in 1994, the criteria were again changed, this time in favour of a two-dimensional model with attention deficit being one subcategory and hyperactivity-impulsivity the other. With each revision, a larger number of children are found to be above the threshold for diagnosis. For example, changing from DSM-III to DSM-III-R, more than doubled the number of children from the same population who could be diagnosed with the disorder. Changing from DSM-III-R to DSM-IV increased the prevalence by a further two-thirds, with the criteria now having the potential to diagnose the vast majority of children with academic or behavioural problems in a school setting.
當1994年DSM的第四版(DSM-IV)出版時,診斷標準再次改變,這次採用了兩維模型,將注意力缺陷作為一個子類別,過度活躍-衝動作為另一個子類別。隨著每次修訂,符合診斷標準的兒童數量不斷增加。例如,從DSM-III變為DSM-III-R,使同一人群中診斷該障礙的兒童數量增加了兩倍以上。從DSM-III-R變為DSM-IV,使患病率又增加了三分之二,這些標準現在有可能診斷出大多數在學校中表現出學業或行為問題的兒童。
In 2013, the fifth edition of DSM was published (DSM-5) with some key criteria having been broadened to allow more adolescents and adults to qualify for a diagnosis—for example, increasing the required age of onset for symptoms to age 12 or earlier, which had increased from age 7 or earlier in DSM-IV. The meteoric rise in numbers diagnosed with ADHD meant that by 2016 in the United States, an estimated 9.4% (6.1 million) of children aged 2-17 years had received an ADHD diagnosis.
2013年,DSM的第五版(DSM-5)出版,其中一些關鍵標準被擴展,以允許更多青少年和成年人符合診斷條件——例如,症狀的發病年齡從DSM-IV中的7歲或更早增加到12歲或更早。ADHD診斷數量的急劇增加意味著到2016年,美國估計有9.4%(610萬)2至17歲的兒童被診斷為ADHD。
The biologisation of childhood
童年生物化
The principal recommendation for treatment has long been that of prescribing stimulant medication—namely, the use of the amphetamine class of drugs (such as Ritalin and Dexedrine). The idea that ADHD has a specific medical treatment has acted as a powerful stimulant (pun intended) toward the popularisation of the concept, particularly in those countries that are dominated by a market-based economic value system where the perceived availability of a specific treatment has enabled commodification and commercialisation of the diagnosis.
治療ADHD的主要建議長期以來一直是開具興奮劑藥物,即使用安非他命類藥物(如利他林和德克西安)。ADHD具有特定醫學治療方法的觀點,實際上成為推動該概念普及的強大刺激因素(雙關語在此處是故意的),特別是在那些以市場經濟價值體系為主導的國家,這些國家將特定治療方法的可用性視為推動診斷商品化和商業化的動力。
The ideology that began gaining ground in the late 1950s for adults and early 1970s for children—that mental disorders are the result of chemical imbalances for which there are specific medications—had taken hold. The marketing of medications directly to physicians coincided with the US government becoming interested in the merits of using psychoactive medications to treat hyperactivity.
這種觀點開始在1950年代末期針對成人,1970年代初期針對兒童逐漸流行,認為精神疾病是化學失衡的結果,並有特定藥物可治療。直接向醫生推銷藥物的同時,美國政府也開始關注使用精神藥物治療過度活躍的益處。
Furthermore, the expanding use of psychopharmaceuticals for hyperactivity happened at a time when “scientific” approaches to parenting became fashionable, reaching their zenith in the mid to late 20th century in the West. The ascendance of scientific ways of talking about children, child development, and parenting displaced more naturalistic approaches to childrearing characteristic of earlier eras, pushing the task of child rearing further toward ownership by professional groups.
此外,精神藥物治療過度活躍的使用擴大,正好發生在“科學”育兒方法流行的時期,這種趨勢在20世紀中後期的西方達到頂峰。科學化的兒童發展和育兒討論逐漸取代了早期時代更自然的養育方法,將養育孩子的任務進一步推向專業群體的掌控。
Previously in the United States, children were viewed as largely sturdy and resilient. An example of this can be found in the Fischer’s late ‘50s/early ‘60s New England town study. According to the study, families understood their children’s problematic behaviours as “stages” that most children could be expected to pass through. Viewing problems in this way meant that parents did not feel an obligation to seek professional help for them. In fact, to do so would run counter to another prevailing belief, which was that parents ought not to force children in case they damage their “potential.” Thus children’s “bad” behaviour was interpreted through a normative lens as expected and temporary.
過去在美國,兒童通常被視為健壯且具有韌性的。例如,這可以從菲舍爾(Fischer)於1950年代末至1960年代初對新英格蘭鎮的研究中看出。根據這項研究,家庭認為孩子的問題行為只是“階段”,大多數孩子都會經歷這些階段。這樣看待問題意味著家長不會覺得有必要尋求專業幫助。事實上,這樣做反而會與另一種普遍信念相矛盾,即家長不應強迫孩子,以免損害他們的“潛力”。因此,孩子的“壞”行為被視為預期且暫時的。
These changing dynamics—moving childhood behaviour problems away from the parental “common sense” arena toward ownership by a professional class—together with the greater emphasis on using psychopharmaceuticals to control emotions and behaviours, contributed to diagnosis and prescription of medications for childhood mental disorders increasing steeply in the past few decades in most post-industrial countries (particularly in North America, Northern Europe, and Australasia).
這種變化的動態——將兒童行為問題從父母的“常識”範疇轉移到專業階層的掌控——加上強調使用精神藥物來控制情緒和行為,促使過去幾十年在大多數後工業國家(特別是北美、北歐和大洋洲)對兒童精神疾病的診斷和處方藥物的數量急劇增加。
While this fact is not disputed, it is subject to many different interpretations by scholars and professionals, depending on their divergent theoretical assumptions. Those who believe that scientific progress is behind this rapid change in practice, argue that disorders such as ADHD were simply “under-recognised” in the past. According to this perspective, there have always been children suffering from such disorders, but only as a result of recent clinical and scientific advances have we discovered these to be symptoms of medical conditions that can cause abnormal development.
儘管這一事實無可爭議,但學者和專業人士基於不同的理論假設對其有多種解釋。那些認為科學進步是促成這種快速變化的背後原因的人,主張像ADHD這樣的障礙在過去只是“未被充分認識”。根據這種觀點,一直以來都有兒童患有這類疾病,但只是由於近期的臨床和科學進步,我們才發現這些是導致異常發育的醫學症狀。
Critics of this view, like me, point to the lack of evidence to support the idea that there have been clinical or scientific discoveries that have led to progress.
像我這樣的批評者指出,沒有證據支持臨床或科學發現已經帶來進步的觀點。
By the beginning of this century the concept of ADHD was migrating beyond that of a childhood developmental disorder to a lifelong disorder as the idea of adult ADHD took off, starting inevitably in the pharmaceutical marketing global capital, the United States. The emphasis in adult ADHD moves from observations of external behaviour to perceived failings of internal regulation, highlighting problems with “self-concept” and largely disregarding hyperactivity in its diagnostic framework.
到了本世紀初,ADHD的概念不再僅僅局限於兒童發育障礙,而是演變為一種終身性疾病,隨著成人ADHD的概念興起,這一過程不可避免地從全球藥品行銷中心——美國開始。成人ADHD的重點從外部行為觀察轉向內部調節的感知缺陷,強調“自我概念”的問題,並在診斷框架中基本忽視了過度活躍。
As Western culture has heightened its focus on the individual, it has emphasised the fragility of their inner life, turned desires into commoditised needs, and taught people to measure their sense of self-worth through competitive achievements. Diagnoses, framed in ways that blame the problem on biochemical dysfunction, can appear to provide an avenue of relief from the struggles involved in keeping a positive sense of self in the absence of achievement or personal satisfaction.
隨著西方文化加強了對個體的關注,它強調個體內心生活的脆弱性,將欲望轉變為商品化的需求,並教導人們通過競爭性成就來衡量自我價值。這種將問題歸因於生化功能障礙的診斷框架,似乎提供了一條解脫之路,讓人們在缺乏成就或個人滿足感的情況下,能夠應對保持積極自我意識的困難。
The focus on “inner life” (such as with depression and anxiety) that dominates adult psychiatry (as opposed to the focus on behaviour that dominates child psychiatry), has led to women being the predominant “customers” for community psychiatric services. Not surprisingly perhaps, the shift in emphasis in definitions of adult ADHD, from behavioural to internalised characteristics, has been accompanied by an increase in the numbers of women being diagnosed with adult ADHD, and in many countries women outnumber men for this label, despite the fact that the diagnosis of childhood ADHD is strongly associated with being male.
主導成人精神病學的對“內心生活”(如抑鬱和焦慮)的關注(與主導兒童精神病學的行為關注相對應),導致女性成為社區精神病服務的主要“客戶”。或許不足為奇,成人ADHD定義從行為特徵轉向內化特徵的變化,伴隨著女性被診斷為成人ADHD的數量增加,並且在許多國家,女性在這一標籤上的數量超過男性,儘管兒童ADHD的診斷強烈與男性相關。
This attempted solution, however, remains fragile, as it also includes the notion of a permanent and biologically based disability, and thus that of “damaged goods,” creating a more long-term problem—with the diagnosed person invited into a potentially lifelong struggle to control and prevent their “ADHD” from ruining their life.
然而,這種解決方案仍然脆弱,因為它還包括一種永久性、基於生物學的殘疾觀念,並因此將患者視為“有缺陷的產品”,這就創造了更長期的問題——被診斷的人可能一生都在努力控制和防止其“ADHD”破壞生活。
The pharmaceutical industry appears to have been instrumental in the rise of adult ADHD, especially over the last couple of decades. In 2004, for example, pharmaceutical marketing companies explicitly identified adult ADHD as an expanding and lucrative market for stimulants and related drugs.
製藥行業似乎對成人ADHD的崛起起到了關鍵作用,尤其是在過去的幾十年裡。例如,2004年,製藥行銷公司明確將成人ADHD視為一個擴展且有利可圖的興奮劑和相關藥物市場。
Several companies have run direct-to-consumer advertising campaigns in the United States, which market the disorder by suggesting that common behaviours (such as forgetting car keys) may be symptoms. Company websites also contain screening questionnaires that encourage people to seek help if they think they have the diagnosis. Moreover, it has been revealed that some of the researchers who most vigorously promoted the concept of adult ADHD and conducted many of the drug trials failed to disclose millions of dollars of income they had received from pharmaceutical companies.
幾家公司在美國開展了直接面向消費者的廣告活動,通過暗示普通行為(如忘記車鑰匙)可能是症狀來推銷這種障礙。公司網站還包含篩查問卷,鼓勵人們在認為自己有此診斷時尋求幫助。此外,有人揭露,那些最積極推動成人ADHD概念並進行許多藥物試驗的研究人員,未能披露他們從製藥公司獲得的數百萬美元收入。
What we define as ADHD today is the product of these vested commercial, political, and institutional interests. Nowhere in the story of the emergence and popularisation of ADHD has there been any—and I mean any—significant scientific discovery.
我們今天所定義的ADHD是這些既得的商業、政治和機構利益的產物。在ADHD的出現和普及的過程中,沒有任何——我指的是任何——重大的科學發現。
Not everywhere sees ADHD
並非所有地方都看見ADHD
The drive to “discover” biomedical templates within which to place various children’s behaviours that are considered socially difficult has resulted in the exclusion of cultural meaning, the local significance of particular behaviours, and local beliefs and practices for dealing with such behaviours.
對「發現」用以解釋各種兒童行為的生物醫學模板的推動,已經導致排除文化意義、特定行為的地方重要性以及處理這些行為的地方信仰和實踐。
When we view childhood behaviours through the prism of local cultural beliefs, variations in practice can be found even within and between countries that recognise and have widespread availability of services for diagnosing and treating ADHD.
當我們透過當地文化信仰的視角來看待兒童行為時,甚至在那些認識並廣泛提供診斷和治療ADHD服務的國家內外,我們仍可以發現實踐中的差異。
For example, in a context where self-control in response to aggression or provocation is highly valued, a lack of self-control is more likely to be interpreted as a disorder. Similarly, in contexts where school success is highly valued, poor school performance is more likely to be interpreted as being the result of a disorder.
例如,在一個高度重視對攻擊或挑釁進行自我控制的文化中,缺乏自我控制更可能被解釋為一種障礙。同樣,在高度重視學校成功的背景下,學校表現不佳更可能被解釋為疾病的結果。
Thus, a significant difference is found in how ADHD is conceptualised in real world practice between the UK and the US. Both epidemiological and child/family interview studies have found considerable differences in the sort of problems likely to lead to a diagnosis of ADHD, and subsequent treatment, between these two countries.
因此,ADHD在現實世界中的實踐中,英國和美國的概念化方式存在顯著差異。流行病學和兒童/家庭訪談研究都發現,這兩個國家在導致ADHD診斷以及隨後治療的問題類型上存在顯著差異。
In the UK diagnosis and treatment is more likely to be given to children (mainly boys) from lower social classes and is associated with higher levels of behavioural problems, whereas in the US, middle-class children (again mainly boys), particularly in areas of lower academic achievement, are more likely to be diagnosed and treated.
在英國,診斷和治療更可能針對來自較低社會階層的兒童(主要是男孩),並且與較高水平的行為問題相關,而在美國,中產階級的兒童(同樣主要是男孩),特別是在學術成就較低的地區,更有可能被診斷和治療。
Interviews with young people diagnosed with ADHD in the UK and US have found that their beliefs about ADHD mirror the epidemiological findings, with UK children much more likely to view ADHD as a disorder of self-control causing them to lose their temper and get into fights, whereas US children are more likely to believe that ADHD is a disorder that causes them to fail at school.
對英國和美國被診斷為ADHD的年輕人的訪談發現,他們對ADHD的看法反映了流行病學的研究結果。英國兒童更傾向於將ADHD視為自我控制障礙,導致他們失去脾氣並陷入爭吵,而美國兒童則更傾向於認為ADHD是一種導致他們在學校表現不佳的疾病。
Cross-cultural ADHD studies find major and significant differences between assessors from different countries in what behaviours they rate as problematic. There are also significant differences between assessors when they assess children from different ethnic minority backgrounds. Some of the early studies found a surprisingly high rate of hyperactivity in children from China and Hong Kong. In these studies, nearly three times as many Chinese as English children were rated as hyperactive.
跨文化ADHD研究發現,不同國家的評估者在評價哪些行為是問題行為時存在顯著差異。當評估不同少數族裔背景的兒童時,評估者之間也存在顯著差異。一些早期研究發現,中國和香港的兒童過動率出奇地高。在這些研究中,過動的中國兒童數量幾乎是英國兒童的三倍。
However, a closer look at the findings suggested that most of the “hyperactive” Chinese children would not have been rated as hyperactive by most English assessors and were in fact a good deal less hyperactive than English children rated as “hyperactive.” One suggestion for such a disparity in hyperactivity ratings between Chinese and English assessors and children is that it may be due to the greater importance of school success in Chinese culture, leading to an intolerance of lesser degrees of disruptive behaviour. Whatever the reason(s), it demonstrates that hyperactivity and disruptiveness are culturally constructed entities.
然而,仔細分析發現,大多數「過動」的中國兒童不會被大多數英國評估者評為過動,實際上他們的過動程度遠低於被評為「過動」的英國兒童。對於中國和英國評估者和兒童之間過動評分差異的一個解釋是,這可能源於中國文化中對學校成功的更大重視,導致對較輕度的破壞性行為無法容忍。無論原因如何,這表明過動和破壞性行為是文化構建的產物。
Another medical anthropology study, published in 2003, looked at a group of middle-class children at a Mexican school with over 200 pupils. Using standard questionnaires the researchers concluded that about 8% of the children could be diagnosed as having ADHD, yet there was only one child in that school who had been given an ADHD diagnosis. Through interviews with parents and teachers of those more active children who were not diagnosed, the researchers discovered that these carers regarded ADHD-type behaviours as within the boundaries of behaviours viewed as normal and expected for these children, particularly boys, at those ages.
另一項於2003年發表的醫學人類學研究,調查了一所墨西哥學校的中產階級兒童,該校有超過200名學生。使用標準問卷,研究人員得出約8%的兒童可以被診斷為ADHD,然而該校只有一名兒童被診斷為ADHD。通過對那些更活躍但未被診斷的兒童的父母和教師的訪談,研究人員發現這些照顧者認為,這些ADHD類型的行為屬於這些兒童,特別是男孩,這個年齡段的正常和預期行為範疇。
Within any culture/society, ADHD shows different patterns of distribution that may be traced back to social and cultural dynamics. Thus, in the UK, the social distribution of ADHD diagnosis follows the contours of a class-based gradient. Children exhibiting the symptoms of any emotional or behavioural disorder, including those with symptoms of ADHD, are much more likely to be poor, to be raised by single and/or unemployed parents, to grow up in underprivileged neighbourhoods, and to be exposed to stressful life events in their early lives.
在任何文化/社會中,ADHD的分佈模式可能追溯到社會和文化動態。因此,在英國,ADHD診斷的社會分佈遵循階級基於的差異梯度。表現出任何情感或行為障礙症狀的兒童,包括ADHD症狀的兒童,更有可能來自貧困家庭,由單親或/及失業父母撫養,在貧困社區長大,並在早期生活中經歷壓力事件。
The highest excess of all is where a parent is in trouble with the law—a court appearance by a parent raises the risk of a diagnosis by almost 200%. This class gradient is not found in the US; the most economically advantaged children in the UK are much more protected against an ADHD diagnosis than their American counterparts.
最高風險出現在父母有法律問題的家庭——如果父母出庭,診斷ADHD的風險會增加近200%。這種階級差異在美國並不存在;英國經濟上最有優勢的兒童在ADHD診斷方面比美國的同齡人受到更好的保護。
Race and ethnicity is another area where within-country differences in diagnostic patterns can be found. In an ethnographic study of families with children diagnosed with ADHD in a metropolitan area of the north-eastern United States, considerable differences between the beliefs and practices of “Euro-American” families and African-American families was found.
種族和族裔是診斷模式差異的另一個領域。在美國東北部大都市區對被診斷為ADHD的兒童家庭進行的民族誌研究中,發現「歐裔美國人」家庭和非裔美國人家庭在信仰和實踐上存在顯著差異。**
While Euro-American families voiced biomedical explanations and preferred to use a clinical lexicon of “disorders” and “conditions,” or specific diagnostic categories to describe their children’s behaviour problems, African-American families resisted pathologising their children’s experience, which was reflected in using a more diffuse vocabulary of “issues,” “challenges,” and “difficulties” to describe problematic behaviours and feelings in their children. These African-American families displayed active questioning of, and scepticism toward, mental health interventions whether these were medication or psychotherapeutic.
歐裔美國人家庭採用生物醫學解釋,更傾向於使用“疾病”和“狀況”的臨床術語,或具體診斷類別來描述他們孩子的行為問題,而非裔美國人家庭則拒絕將孩子的經歷病理化,這反映在他們使用更模糊的詞彙,如“問題”、“挑戰”和“困難”,來描述孩子的問題行為和情感。這些非裔美國人家庭對精神健康干預(無論是藥物治療還是心理治療)表現出積極的質疑和懷疑態度。
All these examples remind us that the gap between observations of a child’s behaviour and the meanings attached to them, including if and when ADHD is used as a label, is vast and cavernous. In that space we construct our culturally biased interpretations with the consequences that then flow out of our choices.
所有這些例子提醒我們,對兒童行為的觀察與賦予這些行為的意義之間,包括何時及是否使用ADHD這一標籤,存在著巨大而深遠的差距。在這個空間裡,我們用文化偏見來構建我們的解釋,並承擔由此產生的後果。
So what has the actual science revealed about ADHD, its causes, and its treatments?
那麼,實際的科學研究揭示了什麼關於ADHD、其成因和治療方法的內容呢?
Science and Evidence Based Medicine (EBM)
科學與循證醫學(EBM)
Science is generally regarded as the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the physical and natural world through observation and experimentation. Science is the use of a methodological approach involving hypothesis generation (suggesting a theory) and then testing that hypothesis through experimentation. The best scientists can live with and accept uncertainty as a prerequisite to being objective in the pursuit of knowledge.
科學通常被認為是一種智力和實踐活動,通過觀察和實驗對物理和自然世界進行系統研究。科學使用的方法論包括假設的提出(提出理論)以及通過實驗來檢驗該假設。最好的科學家能夠接受不確定性,並將其視為在追求知識過程中保持客觀的前提。
In the natural sciences, which most of medicine relies on to develop a system of categorisation based on cause (diagnosis), knowledge develops and builds through carrying out a particular type of investigation, which is aimed at proving something called a “null hypothesis” can’t be true. The null hypothesis is a statement or default position that there is no relationship between certain measured phenomena. Rejecting or disproving the null hypothesis—and thus concluding that there are grounds for believing that there is a relationship and the actual hypothesis may be true—is a central task in the modern practice of science.
在自然科學中,醫學大多依賴於基於原因(診斷)建立分類系統,知識通過進行一種特定類型的調查來發展和建立,該調查旨在證明所謂的“虛無假設”不成立。虛無假設是一種聲明或默認立場,認為某些測量現象之間沒有關係。拒絕或反駁虛無假設,並得出有理由相信存在關聯且實際假設可能成立的結論,是現代科學實踐中的核心任務。
But before any finding can be accepted, you need other independent research teams to replicate results using the same or similar methods. This is because one team may have biases, inadequate sample sizes, technical issues with the accuracy of their equipment, errors in analyses, and sometimes they may even have manipulated results.
但在任何發現被接受之前,還需要其他獨立研究團隊使用相同或相似的方法來重複結果。這是因為一個團隊可能會有偏見、樣本量不足、設備準確性問題、分析中的錯誤,有時甚至可能會操縱結果。
The “replicability” crisis is a major problem in psychiatric and psychological research. One team announces it has found something (say an area of the brain is smaller in ADHD patients compared to a healthy age-matched group), but the next two teams who carry out the same study come up with different findings.
“可重複性”危機是精神病學和心理學研究中的一個主要問題。一個團隊宣布發現了某些東西(例如,與健康的同齡組相比,ADHD患者的大腦某個區域較小),但隨後的兩個進行相同研究的團隊卻得出了不同的結論。
A scientific approach requires starting with the assumption that your theory (hypothesis) is not true—the null hypothesis. Disproving the null hypothesis—meaning therefore that there is evidence that your theory may be true—must happen before you can then move to the next stage of allowing other research teams to do the same or similar experiments to see if they get the same findings as you.
科學方法要求從假設你的理論(假設)不成立開始——即虛無假設。在你可以進入下一階段之前,必須首先推翻虛無假設,這意味著存在證據表明你的理論可能成立。接下來你才能允許其他研究團隊進行相同或類似的實驗,以查看他們是否得出與你相同的結果。
If at any stage in this process your theory is not getting support, you must go back to the “null hypothesis” and assume your theory is not true. It is not scientific to ask someone to prove that the null hypothesis is true. You should always assume it’s true, until it has been proven through all the above steps that it can’t be true.
如果在這個過程中的任何階段你的理論得不到支持,你必須回到“虛無假設”,並假設你的理論不成立。要求別人證明虛無假設是真實的,這並不符合科學原則。你應該總是假設它是真實的,直到通過上述所有步驟證明它不成立為止。
One of the major problems with the current concepts used in psychiatry can be understood by going back to these basic assumptions. In order to scientifically evaluate the proposition that there is a natural category of dysfunction/disorder called “Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder” (ADHD) that is “neurodevelopmental,” we must start with the null hypothesis. That is, we must assume, until proven otherwise, that there is no characteristic relationship between what we are defining as ADHD and some identifiable measurable biological/neurological feature.
目前精神病學中使用的一些概念存在的主要問題之一,可以通過回到這些基本假設來理解。為了科學地評估“注意力缺陷/多動障礙”(ADHD)是“神經發育性”的這一命題,我們必須從虛無假設開始。也就是說,我們必須假設,直到另有證明為止,ADHD與某些可識別的可測量的生物/神經學特徵之間沒有特徵性關係。
This is a foundational assumption behind the development of knowledge through the scientific method. Applying scientific methodology is the basis of EBM. Until we have demonstrated that this basic null hypothesis can’t be true, then scientifically, we cannot proceed with research that assumes that ADHD as a concept has any explanatory power for the behaviours it describes.
這是通過科學方法發展知識的基本假設。應用科學方法論是循證醫學(EBM)的基礎。在我們證明這個基本的虛無假設不成立之前,從科學上講,我們不能進行假設ADHD作為一個概念對其描述的行為具有解釋能力的研究。
In its broadest form, EBM is an approach to improving healthcare that uses the application of the scientific method for decision-making. For much of its history medicine relied more on the subjectivity of “clinical judgement,” and medical students learnt this or that professor’s favourite ideas. Practice developed more through anecdote and assumed authority of the “doctor” or “professor,” often with little supporting evidence.
循證醫學在其最廣泛的形式中,是一種通過應用科學方法來做決策的方式,以此來改善醫療保健。歷史上,醫學大多依賴於“臨床判斷”的主觀性,醫學生學到的往往是某個教授喜歡的觀點。醫學實踐更多是通過個人經驗和醫生或教授的權威假設來發展的,往往缺乏支持證據。
The shift to greater use of scientific principles to inform practice occurred during the 1980s, with greater attention being paid to research on causes and treatments, alongside the development of international institutions such as the Cochrane Collaboration, dedicated to systematically evaluating research evidence on important clinical questions. New analytic approaches (such as meta-analysis and systematic reviews) enabled researchers to pool results of a large number of studies contributing to the development of a comprehensive evidence base.
在1980年代,隨著對病因和治療研究的關注增加,醫學實踐逐漸轉向更多依賴科學原則,同時國際機構如Cochrane協作組織的發展,專注於對重要臨床問題進行系統性評估。新的分析方法(如元分析和系統性評價)使研究人員能夠匯集大量研究的結果,為全面的證據基礎的發展做出貢獻。
EBM was an important step forwards in developing a more scientifically credible approach to healthcare. However, like all great ideas, it exists within a broader political framework. Scientific endeavour is ultimately a human activity and thus what counts as “science” and how we interpret it is shaped by broader cultural and political processes.
循證醫學(EBM)是推動發展更具科學可信度的醫療保健方法的重要一步。然而,像所有偉大的理念一樣,它存在於更廣泛的政治框架中。科學努力終究是一種人類活動,因此,什麼被認為是“科學”,以及我們如何解釋它,都受到更廣泛的文化和政治過程的影響。
Pharmaceutical companies, to give one example, were able, through a variety of strategies, to bias the evidence base towards the products they made. EBM itself fell victim to these broader market-power political forces, leading to a corrupting collusion between profit-focused organisations and professional guilds. Marketing triumphed over science.
以製藥公司為例,它們通過各種策略使證據基礎偏向它們所生產的產品。EBM本身也成為了這些更廣泛的市場權力政治力量的受害者,導致專注於利潤的組織與專業行會之間的腐敗勾結。營銷戰勝了科學。
EBM too became susceptible to being afflicted with “scientism.” In Western culture, science has become a cosmology—that is, an ideology/faith that believes that science has an undeniable primacy over all other ways of seeing and understanding life and the world—making us vulnerable to being taken in by scientism. We want to believe there are easy explanations and simple ways to alleviate suffering. Marketing the promise of psychiatric diagnoses and medicinal treatments turned out to be relatively easy.
EBM也變得容易受到“科學主義”的影響。在西方文化中,科學已經成為一種宇宙觀——即一種信仰/信念,認為科學在所有其他看待和理解生活及世界的方式中擁有不可否認的優越性——這使我們容易被科學主義所迷惑。我們希望相信有簡單的解釋和簡單的方式來減輕痛苦。營銷精神診斷和藥物治療的承諾變得相對容易。
Even the Cochrane Collaboration—the institution most connected with the development of EBM—has fallen victim to prioritising marketing over science. Professor Peter Gøtzsche was expelled from Cochrane in September 2018. Gøtzsche has written a compelling account of what happened in his book on the subject, Death of a Whistleblower and Cochrane’s Moral Collapse. It’s a vivid account of how organisations become corrupted once they fall into the clutches of a hierarchy more concerned with finances and marketing than the reasons it was created for.
即便是Cochrane協作組織——與EBM發展最為相關的機構,也成為了優先考慮營銷而非科學的受害者。彼得·戈茲切(Peter Gøtzsche)教授於2018年9月被Cochrane開除。戈茲切在其著作《吹哨人之死與Cochrane的道德崩潰》中對發生的事情進行了引人注目的描述。這是一個生動的故事,講述了當組織陷入更關注財務和營銷的層級掌控時,如何變得腐敗,而這些層級本應該專注於創建該組織的初衷。
Gøtzsche was one of the original co-founders of the Cochrane Collaboration and was key to developing it into a respected research network. He created many of the methodological tools used by Cochrane reviews and has never shied away from letting the data speak for itself, however unpopular the findings might be with some doctors, researchers, and in particular with pharmaceutical and other medical device manufacturers.
戈茲切是Cochrane協作組織的原始聯合創始人之一,對將其發展為一個受人尊敬的研究網絡起到了關鍵作用。他創建了許多Cochrane評論中使用的方法工具,並且無論這些發現對某些醫生、研究人員,尤其是製藥公司和其他醫療設備製造商來說多麼不受歡迎,他從未迴避讓數據自己說話。
Gøtzsche’s brilliance and his fearless approach earned him many enemies. He is one of Denmark’s best-known researchers and is respected in research circles all over the world. But for years he had documented how many products promoted by the pharmaceutical industry and medical device manufacturers can cause more harms than benefits, with detailed analysis of how the research from these companies misleads, obfuscates, or sometimes straightforwardly lies in order to protect and promote their products.
戈茲切的才華和他無所畏懼的態度為他贏得了許多敵人。他是丹麥最著名的研究人員之一,並且在全球研究界廣受尊重。但多年來,他記錄了許多由製藥業和醫療器械製造商推銷的產品如何造成更多的危害而非好處,並對這些公司的研究如何通過誤導、混淆甚至直接撒謊來保護和推廣其產品進行了詳細分析。
His work on psychiatric drugs showing how poor they all are at delivering better lives for those who take them, at the same time as causing enormous harms to millions, has earned him the ire of the psychiatric establishment at large and was perhaps the most influential reason for Cochrane’s hierarchy deciding to expel him.
他對精神藥物的研究表明,這些藥物在改善患者生活質量方面表現不佳,反而對數百萬人造成了巨大傷害,這使他引起了精神病學界的憤怒,這也許是Cochrane高層決定開除他的最具影響力的原因。
These days, what has happened to the idea of EBM is that it is quoted in a quasi-religious fashion. You often hear people repeat, like an incantation, phrases like, “we follow evidence based guidelines,” “this is an evidence based treatment,” “we are an evidence based service” like a parody of earlier times when one might have said, “it says in the bible,” or “according to the bible” and then just say any shit that comes to mind.
如今,循證醫學的理念變得像宗教儀式一樣被引用。你經常會聽到人們像咒語一樣重複這些說法:“我們遵循循證指導方針”,“這是循證治療”,“我們是一個循證服務機構”,這聽起來像是對過去說法的模仿——當時人們可能會說“聖經中這麼說”或“根據聖經”,然後隨意發表任何話語。
We use this language as a social justification for what we practice, and the original assumptions and context around important null hypotheses just disappear behind the smoke and mirrors of puffed-up establishments and limelight-hungry professors.
我們用這種語言作為我們實踐的社會正當性依據,而那些關於重要虛無假設的原始假設和背景在這些自大的機構和渴望名聲的教授的煙霧和幻象背後消失了。
My first “serious” encounter with the phenomenon of ADHD was as a trainee in child psychiatry in the mid-1990s. ADHD was not being diagnosed in the UK at that time; in fact, child psychiatry was a largely systemically orientated profession that didn’t use diagnostic labels, and child psychiatrists rarely prescribed medications.
我第一次“認真”接觸ADHD現象是在1990年代中期,當時我還是一名兒童精神病學的實習生。當時英國還沒有對ADHD進行診斷;事實上,兒童精神病學主要是一個系統導向的職業,並不使用診斷標籤,兒童精神病醫生也很少開藥。
We were aware of the growing medicalisation in the US, and there were child psychiatrists in influential positions in the UK who were attracted by this. By the mid-1990s, their influence was beginning to tell. Thus, one of my supervising consultants expressed an interest in carrying out a “project” on ADHD and its relevance to the population we were serving in an ethnically diverse, deprived area of inner London. He asked me if I would like to join him.
我們意識到美國日益增長的醫療化趨勢,並且在英國一些有影響力的兒童精神病醫生對此頗感興趣。到了1990年代中期,他們的影響力開始顯現。因此,我的一位監督顧問表示對進行一個關於ADHD及其與我們服務的倫敦內城多元種族、貧困地區人口的關聯性的“項目”感興趣。他問我是否願意加入。
As an enthusiastic trainee, eager to learn, I jumped at the chance. My consultant hadn’t yet formulated a research question and so asked me to do a literature review summarising key data on ADHD (diagnosis, prevalence, causes, urban versus rural, etc.).
作為一名熱衷學習的實習生,我抓住了這個機會。我的顧問還沒有確定研究問題,因此讓我進行文獻綜述,總結關於ADHD的關鍵數據(診斷、流行率、病因、城市與鄉村差異等)。
This proved to be an enlightening experience—just not in the way my supervisor imagined. I read studies and reviews but felt troubled by my inability to grasp what this concept was. The more I read the less certain I became. I couldn’t answer the basic question of “what is ADHD?”
這對我來說是一個啟發性的經歷——只是並非以我導師所想的方式。我閱讀了各種研究和評論,但對於無法掌握這個概念感到困惑。我讀得越多,越不確定。我無法回答一個基本問題:“什麼是ADHD?”
What is it, I kept thinking, surely it isn’t just “attention deficit” and “hyperactivity,”—just what it was called, followed by the word “disorder”? I found it incredibly frustrating that the literature I was reading wasn’t addressing this basic question. Instead there was an assumption that ADHD exists as “thing” and that this thing had a concrete reality that meant you could make authoritative statements about its features, implications, causes, prevalence, treatment and so on.
我一直在想,這肯定不只是“注意力缺陷”和“過度活躍”,這只是名稱後面加上“障礙”一詞而已嗎?我發現,這些文獻沒有解決這個基本問題,讓我感到極度沮喪。相反,它們假設ADHD是一種“事物”,並且這種事物有一個具體的現實,這意味著可以對其特徵、含義、病因、流行率、治療等做出權威聲明。
I was astonished to realise that ADHD had been conjured into existence by a few people’s imaginations without this crucial aspect of an evidential basis.
我驚訝地意識到,ADHD是由少數人的想像所創造出來的,而這缺乏一個至關重要的證據基礎。
The articles I read avoided scientific methodology and ignored the null hypothesis. This made me feel uneasy. How could this construct be taken at face value and treated as if it were a real entity? If the construct does not reflect a specific, measurable, identifiable, natural entity (as the null hypothesis presupposes) then all the data built using the idea that ADHD is a “thing” is suspect. Castles built on sand.
我所讀的文章迴避了科學方法論,並忽視了虛無假設。這讓我感到不安。這個構造怎麼能被如此輕易接受,並且被當作一個真實的實體來對待呢?如果這個構造不反映某種具體的、可測量的、可識別的自然實體(正如虛無假設所假設的那樣),那麼所有基於ADHD是一種“事物”的數據都是可疑的。這就像是在沙子上建造的城堡。
This lack of foundational solidity has been confirmed for me in my subsequent years of examining various facets of the ADHD literature. As I will explain later in this chapter, research in the name of showing ADHD to be a natural entity has provided convincing evidence of the opposite. Sadly, in an era where psychiatric thinking is dominated by the quasi-religious scientism, where you just repeat EBM style phrases, this is not the message that most people receive.
在隨後幾年中,我對ADHD文獻各個方面的研究進一步證實了這種缺乏基礎穩固性的現象。正如我在本章後面將解釋的那樣,旨在證明ADHD是一種自然實體的研究提供了相反的有力證據。遺憾的是,在這個精神病學思維被準宗教式的科學主義所主導的時代,大家只會重複循證醫學風格的短語,這並不是大多數人所接收到的信息。
Instead, this is the sort of information you get from websites when you google “What is ADHD?”
相反,當你在網上搜索“什麼是ADHD?”時,你會得到這樣的信息:
“ADHD stands for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. It is a medical condition. A person with ADHD has differences in brain development and brain activity that affect attention, the ability to sit still, and self-control. ADHD can affect a child at school, at home, and in friendships.” (Kids Health).
“ADHD代表注意力缺陷多動障礙。這是一種醫學狀況。患有ADHD的人在大腦發育和大腦活動方面有差異,這會影響注意力、坐定能力和自我控制。ADHD會影響孩子在學校、家中和友誼中的表現。”(Kids Health)。
Or “If you have attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD), you may have lots of energy and find it difficult to concentrate. It can be hard to control your speech and actions. ADHD is the most common behavioural disorder in children. It usually starts at about 18 months old, but symptoms usually become noticeable between the ages of 3 and 7. We don’t know what causes ADHD but experts think it runs in families. It could also be caused by an imbalance in brain chemicals.” (Young Minds).
或者,“如果你患有注意力缺陷多動障礙(ADHD),你可能有很多精力,很難集中注意力。控制你的言語和行為可能會變得困難。ADHD是兒童中最常見的行為障礙。它通常在18個月左右開始,但症狀通常在3到7歲之間變得明顯。我們不知道ADHD的具體原因,但專家認為它與家族遺傳有關,也可能由於大腦化學物質的失衡引起。”(Young Minds)。
Or “ADHD is characterised by periods of impulsiveness, hyperactivity and inattention, but it’s more than being a daydreamer or a fidget. ADHD affects about 2-5% of us, and it’s largely genetic – although environmental factors can make it worse.” (BBC Advice)
或者,“ADHD的特徵是衝動性、多動和注意力不集中,但這不僅僅是愛做白日夢或坐立不安。ADHD影響我們中約2-5%的人,主要是遺傳性的——儘管環境因素可能使其惡化。”(BBC Advice)。
If you google “What causes ADHD?” you get things like:
如果你搜索“ADHD的成因是什麼?”你會得到這樣的答案:
“ADHD tends to run in families and, in most cases, it’s thought the genes you inherit from your parents are a significant factor in developing the condition… Research has identified a number of possible differences in the brains of people with ADHD compared to those who don’t have the condition… Other studies have suggested that people with ADHD may have an imbalance in the level of neurotransmitters in the brain.” (NHS Choices).
“ADHD往往具有家族遺傳性,在大多數情況下,人們認為你從父母那裡繼承的基因是導致這種狀況的重要因素……研究已經發現ADHD患者的大腦與非ADHD患者相比存在一些可能的差異……其他研究也表明,ADHD患者的大腦中神經遞質的水平可能存在失衡。”(NHS Choices)。
Or “Scientific research has found there is a strong genetic link in ADHD. It is not a disorder that is learnt or passed on socially… Many of the genes that experts have identified as potentially contributing to the development of ADHD are genes that control certain types of neurotransmitter… Scientific studies have shown that in people with ADHD some important parts of the brain are developing more slowly and communicating less well.” (Netdoctor)
或者,“科學研究發現,ADHD與遺傳有著強烈的聯繫。這不是一種通過社會學習或傳遞的障礙……專家們已經確定了許多可能促成ADHD發展的基因,這些基因控制某些類型的神經遞質……科學研究表明,在ADHD患者中,某些大腦的重要部位發育較慢,且溝通較差。”(Netdoctor)。
If you google “ADHD treatment” you get things like:
如果你搜索“ADHD治療”,你會得到這樣的答案:
“Treatments range from behavioural intervention to prescription medication. In many cases, medication alone is an effective treatment for ADHD.” (Healthline).
“治療方法從行為干預到處方藥物。在許多情況下,單靠藥物治療對ADHD是有效的。”(Healthline)。
Or “Treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) relies on a combination of medicines and behaviour therapy. Treatment with medicine depends on the age of your child. The first step is an accurate diagnosis of ADHD and an understanding of your child’s strengths and weaknesses. Learning about ADHD will help you and your child’s siblings better understand how to help your child.” (Webmd)
或者,“注意力缺陷多動障礙(ADHD)的治療依賴於藥物和行為療法的結合。藥物治療取決於您孩子的年齡。第一步是準確診斷ADHD,並了解您孩子的優勢和劣勢。了解ADHD將幫助您和您孩子的兄弟姐妹更好地理解如何幫助孩子。”(Webmd)。
Most of these websites are meant to be from reliable, bias-free and pharmaceutical company influence-free information sites. You can see that the views you will likely encounter in most searches on the subject include lots of scientifically sounding stuff that tells you that ADHD is something that exists as an identifiable “thing” and that this thing has something to do with your genes and brain (chemicals and structure), and can be treated by medication alongside some behaviour therapy.
大多數這些網站聲稱來自可靠、無偏見並不受製藥公司影響的資訊平台。你會發現,對於這一主題的搜索結果中,你可能遇到的觀點充滿了科學的語言,告訴你ADHD是一個可識別的“事物”,它與你的基因和大腦(化學物質和結構)有關,並且可以通過藥物和行為療法來治療。
Scientism has turned ADHD from a vague, difficult-to-pin-down concept into a fact of culture masquerading as a fact of nature.
科學主義已將ADHD從一個模糊且難以捉摸的概念變成一種文化事實,並偽裝成一種自然事實。
As ADHD does not reach the required evidence base to be considered a “diagnosis,” it is not surprising that there has been a failure to find any specific and/or characteristic biological abnormality such as characteristic neuroanatomical, genetic, or neurotransmitter abnormalities. Unlike the myths that have been spread to spur an ADHD industry on, the scientific reality is that we have a cupboard empty of confirming evidence and full instead of “junk” scientism.
由於ADHD未達到被認為是“診斷”所需的證據基礎,因此,未能找到任何具體或特徵性的生物學異常(如特徵性神經解剖、遺傳或神經遞質異常)並不令人驚訝。與推動ADHD產業的傳說不同,科學現實是,我們的證據庫空無一物,反而充滿了“垃圾”科學主義。
讓我們來看看支持注意力缺陷多動症 (ADHD) 是由基因和大腦問題引起的「現象」的證據。
ADHD 基因學:虛無假設是否已被推翻?
ADHD 是遺傳的這一說法主要來自雙胞胎研究,因為同卵雙胞胎比異卵雙胞胎更常被診斷為 ADHD。在雙胞胎研究中,假設當同卵雙胞胎比異卵雙胞胎更高比例被診斷為相同的疾病時,這是由基因引起的,而不是環境因素。這是因為同卵雙胞胎共享 100% 的基因,而異卵雙胞胎平均共享 50% 的基因。
研究者 Jay Joseph 在其書籍和文章中詳細探討了精神障礙(包括 ADHD)的遺傳性問題,他的批評揭示了支持 ADHD 是具有高度遺傳性的障礙的證據中的問題。
為了讓同卵雙胞胎因共享相同的基因而更有可能患上某種疾病,你必須假設同卵雙胞胎和異卵雙胞胎的心理和社會環境是相同的。這被稱為「相同環境假設」(Equal Environment Assumption,簡稱 EEA)。長期以來,EEA 在比較同卵和異卵雙胞胎時已被證明是不成立的。通常,同卵雙胞胎會受到更相似的對待(例如,穿著相同的衣服),並且會經歷獨特的心理環境(例如,交換角色以迷惑他人)。
成為同卵雙胞胎之一的經歷不同於成為異卵雙胞胎之一的經歷,因此心理和社會因素本身就可能使同卵雙胞胎相比異卵雙胞胎在行為或情感上更相似。這意味著雙胞胎研究方法無法將遺傳因素與環境因素在精神病學表現中分離開來,因此無法從這一方法中得出 ADHD 的遺傳貢獻估計。
還有其他用來估計遺傳性的研究方法,例如家族研究(研究家譜中 ADHD 症狀的普遍性),這些方法同樣無法將環境與遺傳貢獻區分開來。另一種方法是收養研究,這種方法在後勤上更具挑戰性。ADHD 的收養研究會比較養父母家族中的 ADHD 發病率與被收養兒童的生物學家族中的 ADHD 發病率,這些兒童隨後被診斷為 ADHD。
在 ADHD 領域,沒有真正的收養研究。而且收養研究本身就存在很多方法學上的問題,從大多數被收養者在收養前已經在生物學家族或寄養家庭中度過了相當長的時間,到被收養者的父母與普通父母之間的差異等。
因此,與家族研究一樣,收養研究也無法區分環境和遺傳貢獻,因此這些用來估計遺傳性的方法,無論是單獨使用還是綜合使用,都無法推翻虛無假設,即與 ADHD 標籤相關的個體沒有特徵性遺傳異常或差異。
ADHD 的基因證據
唯一能可靠證明 ADHD 的特定基因貢獻的方法是通過分子基因研究。隨著更快速、更廉價的全基因組掃描技術的出現,分子基因學的證據也在不斷累積。然而,儘管 ADHD 基因研究的數量越來越多,但這些研究並未顯示任何特定的基因異常或一致的基因聯繫。這並未阻止一些不道德的研究者宣稱相反的結果。
2010 年,《柳葉刀》(The Lancet)發表了一項聲稱發現了 ADHD 是一種遺傳疾病的具體分子遺傳證據的研究。這項研究一直被引用,並被視為證明 ADHD 確定是遺傳性的權威研究。在當時的新聞發布會上,該研究團隊的負責人 Anita Thapar 教授毫不猶豫地表示:「現在我們可以自信地說,ADHD 是一種遺傳性疾病,患有這種病的孩子的大腦發育與其他孩子不同。」但這是他們實際上發現的內容:
這項研究比較了 366 名「患有 ADHD」的孩子與 1047 名「非 ADHD」對照兒童的全基因組掃描,尋找所謂的拷貝數變異(CNVs)。CNVs 是指某些基因片段的重複或刪除位置異常。
研究發現,15.6%(57 名)患有 ADHD 的孩子有 CNVs,而非 ADHD 對照組中這一比例為 7.5%(78 名)。這使 ADHD 組的超過比例為 8%,這顯然不是一個顯著的數字。如果我們接受 ADHD 的標準「主流」患病率,這也意味著如果你遇到一個有 CNVs 的年輕人,他們更有可能沒有 ADHD 診斷,而不是有。
然而,欺騙不僅於此。ADHD 兒童的平均智商(IQ)為 86,這比一般人口平均值 100 低了 14 分。此外,當 33 名智力受損的 ADHD 兒童(智商低於 70)從 ADHD 組中排除時,剩下的 333 名兒童中只有 11.4% 有 CNVs(現在只比非 ADHD 對照組高出 4%)。而在 33 名智力受損且患有 ADHD 的孩子中,有 39%(13 名)有 CNVs。
這些證據更暗示了 CNVs 與智力障礙(39%)之間的關聯,而不是與 ADHD(11.4%)之間的關聯。因此,該研究的作者應該考慮到智商對 CNVs 發生率的影響,但他們選擇忽略了這一點。
如前所述,ADHD 組的平均智商顯著低於對照組(我們可以假設對照組的平均智商為 100)。作者應該從他們的 ADHD 患者中選擇一個智商平均為 100 的亞組,這樣才可以與對照組進行更合理的比較。我不禁想知道他們是否這麼做了,因為我懷疑他們可能只剩下很小的差異,於是選擇不公開這一點。這種高調且吸引媒體關注的出版物比垃圾科學更糟糕,因為作者在結論中誤導了醫學界和公眾。
自那以後,針對 ADHD 的基因研究得到了大量資金支持。數以千計被診斷為 ADHD 的人進行了全基因組掃描,以檢測所謂的「DNA 變異」——與正常人相比,這些人的 DNA 片段有所不同。這些研究被稱為全基因組關聯研究(GWAS)。
在 GWAS 中,每個人提供一份 DNA 樣本,從中讀取每個人攜帶的數百萬個遺傳密碼,尋找那些在患病人群中比健康人群更常見的基因。如果發現某個基因在患有某種疾病的人中更為常見,則該基因被認為與該疾病相關。GWAS 研究調查整個基因組,這使其與從特定假設出發的研究方法根本不同,後者通常假設某個特定基因可能與(在此情況下)ADHD 相關。
假設驅動的研究提出一個理論,認為某個基因或一組基因(例如編碼神經遞質多巴胺或其神經元受體的基因)異常,然後將這些基因與 ADHD 患者和非 ADHD 對照組進行比較。這類研究曾是調查 ADHD 分子基因異常或差異的主要方式,但最終並未取得成果。
GWAS 研究不是假設驅動的,更像是數據探索。如果它們揭示了可能感興趣的區域,這些區域看起來與正在研究的疾病相關,則可能會引出進一步研究的假設。但單憑這些研究,它們更多告訴你什麼不相關,而非什麼是相關的,尤其是當這些基因分散在基因組的許多不同部位時。
這裡研究的人數尤其重要。最初的 ADHD GWAS 研究沒有發現任何達到全基因組顯著性的 DNA 變異,即便將大多數樣本結合在一起進行了包括三千多名 ADHD 患者及/或其父母的元分析。
後來,使用數量達到數萬的更大樣本,GWAS 研究表明 ADHD 與大量常見變異相關,每個變異的影響微小,分佈於基因組中,並且與其他所謂的精神病學診斷(如自閉症、精神分裂症、雙相情感障礙)交叉,且往往沒有控制學習障礙的影響。
這意味著,為了檢測那些在 ADHD 患者中僅比健康對照略微多出一點的基因,需要非常大的樣本量(至少一萬人)。大多數 ADHD 診斷患者沒有在 GWAS 大樣本中發現的任何基因差異,我們也沒有任何合理的生物學理論來解釋這些微不足道的發現。
熱衷於遺傳病因學的研究者將未能找到可靠的分子基因異常或差異稱為「遺傳力缺失」的難題。因為他們假設 ADHD 一定是遺傳的,所以認為這些遺傳問題一定在某處,只是我們還沒找到而已。最可能的原因是,「遺傳力缺失」從未存在過。
從科學角度來說,我們必須假設在基因學方面,資料庫是空的,虛無假設成立:與 ADHD 相關的個體沒有特徵性可識別的基因異常或基因特徵。
ADHD 大腦成像研究:虛無假設是否已被推翻?
與基因研究類似,ADHD 的大腦成像研究並未發現任何特定或典型的異常。研究結果呈現出的是持續不一致的發現,這些都是統計偏差(放射科醫生不會認為這些大腦在臨床上異常),來自小樣本量的研究,並且通常未能準確匹配年齡(這一點很重要,當我評論有關出生日期的研究時你會明白原因),且通常沒有控制 IQ 水平或藥物影響。一個研究團隊發現某一部分的大腦比「健康」對照組小,下一個研究團隊則沒有發現這一點,甚至發現該部分大腦稍微大一些。
但是,正如我之前所解釋的,科學不應妨礙奉行科學主義的忠實追隨者!在 2017 年,《柳葉刀精神病學》(The Lancet Psychiatry)發表了一項研究,作者聲稱該研究提供了決定性的證據,證明患有 ADHD 的年輕人與健康同齡人的大腦不同,且更小。
就像之前基因學的「垃圾科學」一樣,該研究的主要研究者 Dr. Hoogman 在新聞發布會上做出了大膽的聲明,並被主流媒體報導,他說:「我們的研究結果證實了患有 ADHD 的人有不同的大腦結構,這表明 ADHD 是一種大腦疾病。」然而,對其研究結果的仔細分析顯示,該研究更揭示了作者試圖發現某些東西的迫切心態,而不是他們進行正確科學檢查的能力。
作者稱他們的研究為「超級分析」,因為他們將大量以前研究項目的數據匯集在一起,將所有不同地點的發現「數據處理」,彷彿它們是一項大型研究。這一過程有時能揭示一些問題,但也可能使偶然的發現看起來比實際更具顯著性。
總共有 1713 名被診斷為 ADHD 的患者和 1529 名未診斷 ADHD 的對照組個體的腦部掃描數據,來自全球 23 個研究團隊。他們聲稱發現了 ADHD 患者在某些(並非全部)特定大腦結構上的微小差異,當將 ADHD 組與非 ADHD 組的特定結構的所有可用記錄體積進行比較時,這些差異具有統計學上的顯著性。
使用某些統計變異測量方法使他們得以在如此微小、無臨床意義的差異上提出聲稱。這種方法使他們得以掩蓋一貫不一致的發現。
例如,最大差異來自於一個名為伏隔核(NA)的微小大腦結構。這項超級分析因此聲稱患有 ADHD 的孩子的伏隔核比非 ADHD 的孩子更小。然而,當你查看不同地點的數據時,你會發現 10 個研究地點顯示 ADHD 組的平均伏隔核較小,4 個地點顯示 ADHD 組的平均伏隔核較大,而 6 個地點顯示沒有差異。
這是該研究中顯示最大差異的結構情況。同樣以伏隔核為例,你還可以看到,由於不同研究組使用的機器和/或分析算法不同,解釋掃描結果存在主要技術問題。例如,挪威卑爾根的個體平均伏隔核體積為 758 mm³(ADHD)與 805 mm³(對照組),而在德國維茲堡,ADHD 組的平均伏隔核體積為 462 mm³,對照組為 449 mm³。
或許挪威的孩子擁有與眾不同的伏隔核,而相比之下,德國孩子可能全都患有 ADHD。然而,考慮到挪威組的對照組伏隔核體積更大,而在德國中心的 ADHD 組伏隔核體積更大,這種巨大的變異——中心之間的變異甚至比中心內部還要大——如果(如情況所示)總體體積較大的個體更多集中在對照組伏隔核體積較大的群體中,將進一步影響結果的偏差。
最後,這又是一項未控制 IQ 差異的研究。研究顯示,在成人和兒童中,大腦體積與 IQ 之間存在相關性。當研究作者發布了正確的 IQ 表格(尷尬的是,他們最初發布了錯誤版本),另一個團隊重新分析了數據,考慮了 IQ 可能的影響,得出的結論是,一旦控制了 IQ 差異,ADHD 患者與對照組在任何被調查的大腦區域中都沒有顯著差異。
因此,就科學而言,這裡也是空無一物。沒有人接近發現典型的異常,因此沒有用於診斷 ADHD 的生物標記或腦部掃描。虛無假設依然成立——沒有與 ADHD 相關的特徵性大腦異常。
ADHD 是由化學失衡引起的:虛無假設是否已被推翻?
有很多「專家」聲稱 ADHD 與神經遞質「多巴胺」的化學缺乏或失衡有關。這一想法僅僅基於這樣一個被認為的發現,即作用於刺激多巴胺釋放的藥物(如利他林)似乎能改善 ADHD 的「症狀」,因為它們增加了大腦突觸中的多巴胺水平(後面會更多介紹)。
幾十年前,研究發現,不管是否有診斷,服用興奮劑至少在短期內可以提高你在一項任務上的集中能力。然而,當時還沒有人證明被診斷為 ADHD 的人是否真的缺乏多巴胺,因此化學失衡理論得以傳播,並伴隨著生產增加這些大腦化學物質的藥物製造商的積極營銷。
偶爾會有研究挑戰這一被接受的觀點,因此只獲得有限的關注。其中一項研究於 2013 年發表,其發現質疑了「此前提出的 ADHD 是由多巴胺傳輸基本異常引起的」說法。研究人員發現,給健康成人志願者和出現 ADHD 症狀的志願者服用甲基苯丙胺(通常以商品名利他林著稱),會導致他們大腦中的多巴胺含量相似增加。當測試他們的專注能力時,兩組人在服藥後的改善水平也相同。
我們不應該對這一發現感到驚訝。像利他林這樣的興奮劑對神經系統的作用幾乎與可卡因相同。大多數興奮劑藥物是安非他命的類似物,實際上一些是安非他命的衍生物。安非他命在非法使用中廣泛流行,因為它會讓你專注於手頭的事,使你高度投入,因此除了娛樂性使用外,它們還被用作考試時的學習輔助劑,因為它們可以提高專注力並保持清醒。與我們在精神病學中使用的其他藥物一樣,這些藥物對所有人都有普遍的影響。它們並不會糾正任何基於疾病的「化學失衡」。
因此,這裡的結論也是空無一物。虛無假設成立——沒有與 ADHD 相關的特徵性化學失衡。
班級中年幼的孩子更容易「患上」 ADHD
多項在不同國家進行的研究發現,班級中年紀最小的孩子與年紀最大的孩子相比,患上 ADHD 並/或接受 ADHD 藥物治療的風險顯著增加。這些研究發現,無論是在診斷和開藥率高(如美國)或低(如芬蘭)的國家,這一模式仍然明顯。
這種 ADHD 診斷模式強烈暗示,相對同齡人的不成熟是獲得這一標籤的顯著風險因素(即成人觀察並將孩子的專注力和活動水平問題化——他們的「喧鬧」行為)。無論是在冰島研究中,超過 6% 的兒童被開出興奮劑處方,還是在芬蘭研究中不到 1% 的兒童,這一模式依然成立。無論對這些行為問題化的文化規範如何,相對班級中的不成熟始終是一個風險因素。
當然,孩子的成熟速度各不相同,這引發了一個重要的問題,即即便是班級中年紀較大的孩子被診斷為 ADHD,是否也反映了他們相對較慢的發展軌跡。請記住,這種診斷主要針對男孩,而男性平均發展速度比女性慢。
長期以來,我一直認為,像 ADHD 這樣的偽診斷的增長反映了西方新自由主義社會對兒童多樣性的容忍度下降,在這種文化中,從小孩童便被告知,他們的價值在於他們的表現,而不是他們本身。這些研究結果進一步支持了我的擔憂,即像 ADHD 這樣的診斷流行,反映了我們現代文化中對兒童和童真的容忍度有多低。
ADHD治療:說服父母讓孩子服用類似可卡因的物質
在1970年代、80年代和90年代,ADHD作為一個概念迅速普及,很大程度上得益於安非他命類衍生物的使用增長。這類物質被稱為「興奮劑」,因為它們能增加某些神經遞質(即刺激神經系統)的釋放,尤其是多巴胺。利他林(Ritalin)是這些藥物中最知名的品牌,成為暢銷藥品,為諾華製藥公司帶來了巨大利潤。其他公司很快也意識到了將兒童行為醫療化的巨大潛力,特別是那些讓父母和老師壓力倍增的行為。因此,現在有各種短效和長效藥物可供選擇。
將兒童的惱人、令人擔憂或令人不安的行為貼上偽醫學標籤,為潛在市場打開了巨大的機會。因此,儘管最初在美國開處方給孩子服用這些危險且容易上癮的興奮劑的現象持續了幾十年,但這一趨勢已經蔓延到全球,並且服藥的人數繼續增加。
這一趨勢並非毫無爭議。畢竟,像可卡因一樣的安非他命是高度成癮的,具有明顯的身體和心理依賴性風險,並伴隨著許多嚴重的健康風險。作為中樞神經系統的興奮劑,它們會提高血壓、體溫和心率等生命功能。服用安非他命的人通常會需要更少的睡眠,食慾減少,專注力增加。我們如何能夠合理化地將這種我們警告成年人避免使用的物質給孩子服用,因為我們知道它對身體、大腦及日常生活的長期影響是如此可怕?
這正是需要一個化學失衡理論的時候。ADHD藥物的支持者編造了一個神話,這個神話並不是基於證據,而是一種為他們所倡導的行為辯護的方式。論點是,患有ADHD的人對興奮劑的反應與沒有這種症狀的人不同,因為ADHD患者缺乏多巴胺——因此,興奮劑只是補充了他們原本缺少的物質。這意味著它是糾正性藥物,而不是會導致所有已知可怕後果的東西。因此,興奮劑對於沒有ADHD的人來說是危險的,但對於有ADHD的人來說則是安全的,甚至可能是維持「正常」功能的必要條件。
或者說,這是熱心支持者的說辭。正如前面所討論的,ADHD化學失衡的虛無假設尚未被推翻,因此該理論是無法支持的。
像大多數精神病學中使用的藥物一樣,這些藥物的使用是基於軼事,並且在證明其安全有效的研究進行之前就已經開始使用。人們的假設是,因為興奮劑似乎能讓這些孩子冷靜下來,它必定以不同於那些娛樂性使用者的方式運作,因為那些人看起來更有活力。然而,當在1980年代進行研究時,發現實際上無論是否有診斷,藥物的作用相似。
所開處方的主要效果是創造一種心理上的「隧道視野」,讓孩子更加專注於他們正在做的事情。這種表面上的鎮靜效果與專注力的提高有關。當你看到孩子坐下來,似乎專心學習並遵從指示,而這些是他們之前做不到的,這似乎是一次變革性的治療。
但這是興奮劑的一種普遍的短期效果。它對大多數服用它的孩子都會產生這種效果,無論他們有什麼標籤。支持使用興奮劑作為治療的研究幾乎都是由製藥公司進行的,這些研究僅持續了幾週或幾個月,並集中在評估ADHD的「症狀」而非其他生活質量指標。然而,一旦孩子被處方興奮劑,處方通常不是幾週或幾個月,而是長達多年。這時我們需要證據來說明幾年後會發生什麼。
由於安非他命是高度成癮的,身體耐藥性很可能會出現。就像身體的許多系統一樣,神經突觸(神經細胞之間的連接)具有穩態性質,這意味著它們希望將化學遞質維持在狹窄的範圍內以達到最佳功能。如果由於定期服用安非他命,釋放的多巴胺比平常多,突觸將開始關閉多巴胺受體,以實際上將多巴胺的總量恢復到其正常範圍內。這就是為什麼經常服用一定量可卡因的成癮者會發現,為了獲得同樣的效果,他們需要服用更多的可卡因——因為以前給他們快感的量已經不起作用了。
由於這種穩態機制,過一段時間後,問題行為會再次出現在孩子身上,因為興奮劑提高專注力的效果開始消失。我們稱這種情況為對安非他命的「耐受性」。這意味著突觸已經關閉了一些多巴胺受體,因此你不再得到相同的效果。
然而,如果你現在停用安非他命,會出現戒斷症狀,因為由於工作中的受體數量減少,神經細胞現在獲得的多巴胺過少。突然或過快停藥引起的焦躁狀態看起來像是「ADHD」捲土重來,這會讓所有人,包括醫生——他們中很少有人了解上述過程——相信孩子確實需要安非他命來實現「正常」功能。
因此,藥物劑量將被增加,並且會啟動一個過程,即孩子身體上的依賴性和父母與教師心理上的依賴性逐漸增加,這導致劑量隨著時間的推移逐漸增加,伴隨著暫時的改善期,這最終會消失——然後再進一步增加劑量——同時鞏固了孩子患有一種名為ADHD的大腦疾病,並且需要安非他命來控制它的觀念。
干擾睡眠往往意味著需要添加助眠劑(如褪黑激素),而持續的行為問題則往往最終導致非常強效的「抗精神病」藥物的添加。因此,幾年後發現被貼上ADHD標籤的青少年服用了多種藥物,通常劑量很高,而問題依然持續或從未真正消失,這並不罕見。
但研究證據對長期結果有什麼看法?
1999 年,一項著名的美國 ADHD「治療」研究發表。當時,美國處方興奮劑的使用已經相當普遍。這項研究發表後,得到了廣泛的公眾和專業報導。我記得 2000 年我參加了英國皇家精神病學院的兒童和青少年精神病學會議,當時會議主席向英國的兒童精神病學家觀眾解釋,該研究的影響是,我們必須為任何被診斷為 ADHD 的患者處方興奮劑,並且可能僅靠處方興奮劑就足以應對大多數患者(考慮到資源的限制)。
那麼這項著名的研究發現了什麼?這項被稱為「MTA」研究(ADHD 兒童的多模式治療研究)是一項為期 14 個月的多中心試驗,將年輕患者隨機分配到四個治療組:僅使用藥物(興奮劑)、僅使用行為療法、藥物和行為療法相結合、以及常規社區護理組。
作者得出結論,在 14 個月的治療後,僅使用藥物組和藥物與行為療法結合組的 ADHD 症狀減少得比僅使用行為療法組更多,而行為療法組的效果則優於常規社區護理組。
如你所預料,研究中存在大量問題,這使得這一結論值得懷疑。例如,常規社區護理組的三分之二成員也服用了與藥物組相同的藥物,但他們的結果最差。此外,行為療法組只進行了為期 6 週的強化課程,這可以在 14 個月的任何時間內完成,因此在 14 個月的評估時,接受行為療法的家庭可能已經完成了課程達 9 個月,而藥物組則包括持續到 14 個月的定期約診。
這引發了一個明顯的可能性,即在藥物和結合治療組中,安慰劑效應可能是改善結果的主要原因。在當時,大多數期刊中並不要求衝突利益聲明。預料之中的是,當這些利益公開時,許多主要作者與製藥公司有長期的聯繫。
14 個月的 MTA 研究很快成為 ADHD 治療中引用最多的研究,經常被許多國家的治療指南引用。基於這項仍被稱為最可靠的證據,你可能會以為 MTA 研究就此結束,沒有更多可說的了。但即使接受這些結果,14 個月也無法與大多數人最終服藥多年的情況相提並論。那麼 MTA 研究是否解決了長期服用興奮劑的問題呢?
事實上,MTA 研究的故事並未就此結束。2002 年,我參加了在鳳凰城舉行的一次會議,碰巧坐在一位與 MTA 試驗評估有關的心理學家旁邊。他告訴我,他所在的中心剛剛完成了 3 年隨訪數據的分析。
我記得他對我說:「一旦這些結果發表,沒有人會想讓自己的孩子再服用藥物了。」他對自己的結論的清晰和確定性讓我感到驚訝。他解釋說,在他的中心,持續服藥的孩子變得越來越糟,並且有很多不良反應,而那些沒有服藥的孩子現在做得更好。他告訴我,他們的結果與其他中心相似,並且不久後就會發表。
我不得不再等 5 年,直到 2007 年 MTA 研究的 3 年隨訪結果發表。與 1999 年的原始研究不同,這篇在 8 年後發表的研究(這段時間允許興奮劑處方成為常態)幾乎沒有伴隨任何媒體或專業報導。在 14 個月後,研究參與者可以自由選擇他們的後續治療。實際上,這變成了一項自然主義研究,類似於一般門診情況。
3 年隨訪結果無法證明藥物治療對於改善 ADHD 症狀的持續優勢。此外,在這 3 年中使用更多藥物的孩子更有可能出現 ADHD 症狀惡化、更高的犯罪率,並且與未服藥的孩子相比,平均身高矮 4 厘米,體重輕 3 公斤。
因此,在 3 年後,那些繼續服用興奮劑的孩子情況更糟,且出現了更多的負面影響。這證實了我之前的懷疑,即安慰劑效應在 14 個月的結果中起了主要作用。那位心理學家 5 年前告訴我的話是對的。任何有理智的人看完這個結果,都不會想繼續給孩子服用興奮劑。
但這並沒有導致停止給孩子開處方興奮劑。科學在自由市場驅動的經濟中無法戰勝營銷。儘管發表了這項隨訪研究,但興奮劑的處方數量幾乎沒有變化。14 個月的 MTA 研究仍被引用,而 3 年的隨訪研究則被忽視。MTA 的 3 年隨訪研究的發現與其他長期隨訪研究相似。
其他研究也未能證明長期使用興奮劑與那些被診斷為 ADHD 但未服藥的孩子相比有任何改善結果的關聯。而且,當存在差異時,往往是服用興奮劑的孩子比未服藥的孩子結果更差:在身體方面(如血壓)、精神方面(如情緒「障礙」)和學術問題方面,長期服藥的孩子更常見。
如果這些藥物的使用沒有帶來任何已知的傷害證據,那麼即使它們的處方僅與最初的輕微改善有關,我們或許還能接受。然而,所處方的興奮劑是安非他命或類似安非他命的物質,它們的藥理特性與我們經常警告其使用危險的街頭藥物(如「速度」和可卡因)幾乎相同。
如果這些藥物只被開處方給患者服用一年或更短時間,那麼我們或許可以為它們的使用提供基於證據的論據,說明在這樣有限且受控制的方式下它們是合理的。不幸的是,一旦開始處方,通常會持續多年。由於這些強效且容易上癮的藥物使用會帶來相當大的危害,你確實需要明確的證據來表明服藥者與未服藥者的結果之間的差距。我無法想到任何合理的倫理論據(可能因為根本不存在)來證明長期處方興奮劑是正當的。
如果你搜索興奮劑作為濫用藥物的問題,你會看到類似這樣的描述:
「所有興奮劑都有一系列副作用,這些副作用會對使用者的系統造成嚴重破壞。這些副作用包括心率增加、血壓升高、體溫升高、肌肉顫抖或震顫、躁動不安。這些都是常見的副作用。不論怎麼看,短期濫用興奮劑可能對使用者造成災難性後果,導致高熱、心血管異常,甚至猝死。
長期濫用興奮劑則會增加經歷一系列其他嚴重身體和心理健康問題的風險,如幻覺、妄想、持續性焦慮、偏執、抑鬱、體重減輕、性功能減退、腸胃問題、肌肉衰退、心血管損傷、呼吸問題、頭痛、中風和癲癇。
長期使用興奮劑的人還有很高的風險對興奮劑產生耐藥性、依賴性,最終成癮。此外,依賴性個體可能會在停止或減少使用該藥物時經歷興奮劑的戒斷症狀。雖然興奮劑戒斷不會危及生命,但它可能非常不舒服。興奮劑戒斷有生理和心理兩個方面,這可能很難應對。興奮劑戒斷的常見症狀包括精神和身體疲憊、失眠、快樂喪失、易怒、焦慮和躁動、過度睡眠、強烈的飢餓感。興奮劑戒斷過程中最大的風險之一是抑鬱症伴隨自殺念頭,且嚴重程度因物質而異。有時這種抑鬱症狀可能超過急性戒斷期。」
沒有理由相信,當興奮劑作為處方藥使用時,上述警告不再適用。
處方興奮劑的危害超出了上述描述,因為患者可能會持續服用這些藥物數十年,這可能對大腦中的化學物質造成巨大影響。例如,一項隨訪幾十年的研究發現,那些被處方興奮劑的患者患上帕金森病等神經病的風險增加了 8 倍以上。
帕金森病是一種由於患者神經系統中缺乏多巴胺而引發的疾病。這一發現很可能與長期服用興奮劑有關,因為興奮劑主要通過刺激細胞釋放更多的多巴胺來發揮作用。
ADHD不是一種診斷,無法作為基於證據的概念支持
無論你如何看待將ADHD構建為具有生物學起源並能通過藥物「治療」的「診斷」的好處,科學事實是,ADHD不能被視為一個有效的科學實體,且目前通常優先推薦無限期使用藥物治療的做法,並非基於證據。
ADHD是一個學術精神病學受到科學主義感染並可能造成巨大傷害的例子。將ADHD視為診斷使得兒童、家長、教師、醫生及其他從業者無法看到各種與環境相關的因素,包括不成熟、學習困難、學校問題、欺凌、暴力暴露、飲食、生活方式、缺乏家庭支持、家長信心不足等等,這些都可能與ADHD有關。
它同時也使人們忽視了童真和孩子惹惱大人的能力的普遍性。ADHD更多的是對我們文化中對兒童成長方式多樣性的容忍度以及我們對孩子和他們的父母施加的表現壓力的評論,我們設定了狹窄的年齡依賴標準。
作為一名執業的兒童精神科醫生,我經歷了ADHD從一個少見的條件,通常以系統術語構建,逐漸擴展為最常見的兒童疾病,並主要以生物學術語構建的過程。大約5年前,ADHD的發展達到了飽和,此時新的問題——自閉症,正以不可阻擋的勢頭迅速崛起,這是我下一章的主題。
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